Nanostructuring Ti by methods such as Continuous Equal Channel Angular Pressing (C-ECAP) introduces molecular level microstructural features which increase strength by 30% to 100%. Grain boundary misorientations angles, energies, and total lengths per unit volume increase due to C-ECAP reducing grain size from an average of 20 μm (coarse grain or CG) to less than 0.15 μm (ultrafine grain or UG). This alteration of microstructure not only changes the physical characteristics, it has biological consequences. There are multiple lines of evidence that verify osteogenic cells respond differently to CG- and UG-Ti, with cells grown on UG substrates exhibiting more rapid attachment, proliferation, and differentiation.
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